Knowledge Keeper Quest 5...

Reward Systems

Reward systems are present in every game, providing players with incentive to put more time into the game world out of a need to feel accomplished. In the book Man, Play and Games, Roger Caillois explained different types of games and how they can be classified into 4 categories. He pulled terms from various different languages to explain his theories and identify features of games that cause them to fall into one category as a pose to another. We can use his model and many others to interpret reward systems in game design to gain a better understanding of how rewards influence the manner in which certain players immerse themselves in games.

This blog will cover various classifications of reward systems, touching briefly on Caillois' model as well as that of Wang and Sun. We will also talk about characterizing rewards, how players use rewards and conditioning. 

Caillois, Salen and Zimmerman

Let's begin by introducing the four terms Caillois used to classify games. 

• Agon

• Alea

• Mimicry

• Ilinx

Agon is all about competitive games. Players compete to display their skills to others. This form of play implies that the player has a certain perseverance in improving the skill they are demonstrating. Scores or items are treated as a means to compare players to other players as far as rewards go.

Alea is where players have no control of the game's outcomes. In this style of play, chance is used to balance out a skill-based game as not everyone may possess the skill in question. Caillois stated that games of chance may involve gambling which can be a part of gameplay. The fun of attaining a random reward is at the core of the chance reward system as the player never know what they might get.

Mimicry refers to games of simulation where the player might portray imaginary characters in order to simulate something that they aren't. Being someone you're not or thinking differently than you normally would is at the core of mimicry. 

Ilinx is where players surrender the stability they have in the physical or mental world and choose non-control. They do something that they're not used to such as skiing or bungee jumping. 

Caillois suggested that games within these classifications run on a spectrum with paida (improvised, emergent play) and ludus (rule-based, fixed play) at either end. Salen and Zimmerman group games into three different categories (game play, ludic activities, being playful). While game play can be something that doesn't necessarily need to have a goal, ludic activities are more fluent and rule-bound. Ludic activities are concerned with setting a task for the player before completing that task. It is all informed by game design. Being playful, at the other end of the spectrum, is almost child-like by being focused on just wanting to play as a pose to paying close attention to the actual game and its rules. 

Wang and Sun

Reward systems strengthen the feedback systems in the game and feedback systems make the outcomes of games more discernible. In game play, you would want to generate feedback in order to establish an external system telling the player how to play the game. Wang and Sun came up with 8 reward forms based on the classification scheme that categorizes general rewards in life by glory, sustenance, facility and access. Let's begin by talking about the "Score Systems," the first reward form.

Score systems use numbers to mark player performance. They are used as a controlled feature to find whether or not your game is fun. This is based highly on the belief, back in the day, that scores in games were essential to fun - not so true anymore. The social factor is really important for the scoring system and is used for self-assessment by players. Humans really like to compare themselves to each other and get pleasure from relative personal progress. In fact, the only thing more exciting than having a personal score is having a team score that everyone has worked together to achieve. The social element is core to rewards. Scores are accumulated over time in a persistent game world so players can use them to rate themselves. 

RPGs use experience leveling systems as a facility for avatars during gameplay, thereby allowing players to achieve specific goals within the game. Experience leveling facilitates what an avatar can do over time. Rewards in this form are given through skills that help the avatar improve. A lot of games nowadays are increasing player skills over time.

Item granting consists of collecting virtual items that the player can use. They can facilitate how the avatar progresses through the game and how the player can complete certain actions quicker/better. Item granting can be ties into an overall system where item collection is the main source of fun for some people who may collect items simply to show them off and achieve a sense of glory. 

Collectible and usable resources will affect the gameplay you're engaging in. A great example of this is the manner in which wood and food are invaluable and essential resources within Age of Empires, fueling the gameplay. Such collectibles are used as both rewards and resources. An important differentiation to make here is that between resources and items. While resources are for practical game use or for sharing with other players, items are for collecting and comparing with others. 

Achievement systems consist of titles that get linked to avatars based on their skills and gear. A lot of RPGs use this system for weapons and items. The achievement a player feels is ranked based on the title they have. This form or reward system can be seen on a meta-level of gameplay. 

Feedback messages are generally used to provide instant rewards to evoke a momentary positive feeling. Juiciness is exactly what represent this positive feedback that results from player actions. It is essential to games, yet all these reward types are ephemeral which means that they will leave soon and won't be remembered once they dissipate. Plot animations and pictures are milestone markers. A video or cutscene will serve to drive the story or theme forward and provide some kind of fun because they are visually appealing and mark the completion of something major. Finally, unlocking mechanisms make players go through in order for more thing to be unlocked. A good example of this is how extra content is unlocked upon completion of the game. 

Reward Characteristics

Rewards should have social value which makes them suitable for comparing within social interaction. It is common for players to invite people to their homes or upload their achievements in order to compare results. This characteristic is all about performing and showing off in addition to comparison. Kids have competition among themselves intrinsically. We get social value out of a reward by comparing it to another person's. Scores are the simplest way to enforce this reward characteristic.

The second characteristic of rewards is the manner in which they effect gameplay. Richard Bartle introduced 4 different player types - achievers, killers, explorers and socializers. While some players find fun in earning rewards, other players have a greater interest in superficial game aspects (socializers). A common motivation between various player types is achieving rewards that have the potential to influence how the player will perform in the game. Suitability of a reward for collection and review is another important characteristic, more so for achiever player types, but overall as well. Rewards could be used as markers for game memories as things achieved generally give the player a sense of satisfaction. 

In addition, time taken to earn or receive the reward influences how the reward is viewed. The school system, for example, is based on a long-term achievement or reward. More generally, different time spans tend to mark the value of the reward for a player. In the real world, rewards take a much longer time to achieve (a promotion) than they do in a game world. This is generally not how we function as we are more inclined to receiving instant rewards and experiencing multiple feelings in a short amount of time. This exactly why game are so exciting to us. It is imperative to analyse the time required to receive a reward and whether the reward is worth the wait. Remember that a small reward is usually better than no reward in the time it takes to achieve a long-term reward.

How Players Use Rewards

To analyse how players use rewards, we make use of a dual axis model. The horizontal axis ranges from "Self" to "Other" while the vertical axis ranges from "Progress" to "Casual". The Self-Other axis represents whether you're playing by yourself or playing to have a good social connection with other players. The Progress-Casual axis is very similar to the plotting of games on a spectrum between Paida (free-form) and Ludus (rule-based). Four particular categories emerge from this dual-axis model. 

Players generally use rewards for forward progression through the game, to build their avatar's strength or mitigate challenge levels thereby triggering the feeling of increased skill and power. Personal advancement is the first of the four categories and is fun or appealing from the view of advancing your character's skills. Review is the second characteristic portrayed and involves players checking their achievement collection or viewing their avatar's weapons and equipment. Sociality is another characteristic and is important for establishing social status and expressing the player's self. It deals with players showing off their personality within a community in terms of social status and connections. The final category, cooperation and collaboration has to do with sharing one's resources and selling items in a social forum.  

Jesse Schell

Schell had his own categories for rewards and listed them as follows:

• Praise - The system gives you instant feedback.

• Points - Given based on skill or luck to in order measure the player's success that may be linked to other rewards.

• Prolonged Play - Explores the idea of risking certain resources in order to rack up others without losing what you put at risk. A reward item such as this helps you play the game longer. A good example of this is the ability to rewind time in Prince of Persia. It essentially appeals to the survivor player type in all of us.

• A Gateway - This is where we explore our desire to find new areas in a game and be rewarded as a result. It ties into our natural curiosity in providing access to something we didn't previously have access to.

• Spectacle - This is something beautiful and instantly visually appealing. It makes us very happy because it has a high aesthetic value attached to it.

• Expression - This is where we try to express our individuality and respond to our urge to make a mark in the world.

• Powers - These alter our form and give us ways to reach our goal much quicker. Having new powers may speed up certain game processes.

• Resources - Currency for certain transactions used to advance within the game.

• Completion - Appeals to our natural need for closure. We must understand why events in a game take place and if we aren't able to answer our questions, we often make up explanations. Completion is a very powerful driver.

Classical and Operant Conditioning

The famous experiment of Pavlov and his dogs can be used to explain Classical Conditioning in a nutshell. A stimulus is attached to something that isn't necessarily related as humans learn to build value. You can take a neutral stimulus and make it a conditioned stimulus through repetition of introduction. The Little Albert experiment though highly unethical helps us look at different stimuli invoking varying conditions. The experiment proves that Pavlov's theory was transferable to humans. Initially the child showed no fear to the stimulus it was presented with. Then a loud noise was made when the stimulus was presented and soon the child became conditioned to being afraid whenever the stimulus was displayed to him even when the loud noise wasn't made. The unconditioned stimulus here was the loud noise which was used to create a natural response (fear). The conditioned stimulus was the rat which was used to condition the child to cry. 

Later on, these tests were re-created with testing rats as B.F. Skinner introduced the term reinforcement as well as reinforcement schedules into classical conditioning. What Skinner was attempting to demonstrate was that behavior being reinforced tends to be repeated while behavior that isn't reinforced tends to die out. The rats learned to utilize the lever every time they wanted food thus learning to exhibit this behavior through positive reinforcement. The negative reinforcement tests sent electric current through the rat till it pressed the lever. This forced the rat to learn quickly how to avoid the electric stimulus, reinforcing the behavior negatively. 

There are two types of learning in reinforcement. Escape learning and avoidance learning. Escape learning is learning by going away from the stimulus that gives the subject and unpleasant feeling whereas avoidance learning is when the subject will avoid certain stimulus because it provides an unpleasant feeling. This leads to an understanding of how reinforcing works. In essence, you're making an event stronger and increasing the behavior that follows the event. There are two types of reinforcers. Positive reinforcers remove unfavourable events or outcomes that are presented after the behvaiour takes place. Negative reinforcers remove the unfavourable event or outcome altogether strengthening the response as a result. 

Punishment is used to weaken behaviours. Positive punishment is when you're presented with an unfavourable event or outcome after a behaviour that you do not want to reinforce. Negative punishment is what happens when you remove a favourable event as a result of a behaviour that you do not want to reinforce. Positive punishment is adding an event whereas negative punishment is removing an event. 

Types of rewards for people

Tom Chatfield spoke about types of rewards there are for people. There are two distinct processes going through a person's mind when they are engaged. These are "wanting" and "liking". Wanting is about ambition and drive requiring intense emotional engagement. Liking, on the other hand, covers fun, affection and delight. These drivers can be measured in a game. You can essentially track all data points that the game gives you in order to get all the information you can about the data in the game. 

Reward schedules are based on reinforcement rewards. It is important as a game designer to think about calibrating the rate, nature and type of reward to see how much time people put in the game. Reward schedules can be seen in getting certain items upon completing objectives within the game. It's like opening the cereal box to see your prize - some enemies drop loot and some don't, also the loot can vary based on your skill level and the difficulty of the enemy you're facing. Loot dropping is engaging behaviour with a chance of reward. It is intermittent and random. In order to keep people engaged, think about having an optimal number of rewards to collect. This number will additionally influence the drop-rate of the reward and the quality of the item. You can even calibrate your rewards by the chance the player has of obtaining them. 

In Conclusion

We have been hard-wired over time to find some things more stimulating than others. Now we are finding out what things may or may not be stimulating based on rewards. Experience bars are great at this, measuring progress and grading people incrementally as they advance through the game. The player is now more used to having long-term aims as games are trying to get the player to earn their reward and get credit where credit is due. All of this encourages players to put effort into the game.

At the end of the day reward systems on a design side are all about ticking boxes. Feedback needs to be rapid, frequent and clear and the element of uncertainty should always be present. Generally people are more excited to participate in an activity just to see if they'll get a reward for it. This is due to the fact that obtaining rewards increase the dopamine levels in our brains. Based on this knowledge we can predict how likely people are to learn something. People will build confidence in activities that are positive and rewarding for them. The most important thing to remember as a game designer is that it is neurologically satisfying for players to engage and compete with other players. Working with other people is the greatest driver for us. This is the reason we excel in life and why we remain adamant about displaying our social status.